What "earth and mineral" means in this guide
In this guide, earth and mineral building materials means the six materials we have published profiles for in this family: clay plaster, lime plaster, rammed earth, compressed earth blocks, low carbon concrete and geopolymer concrete.[1][2][3][4][5][6] It groups earth (clay, rammed earth, earth blocks), lime and cement-based mineral materials. This is our editorial grouping, not a standard, a certification or a performance claim.
We keep two sub-groups apart. Earth and lime covers clay plaster, lime plaster, rammed earth and compressed earth blocks. Cement and binder technology covers low carbon concrete and geopolymer concrete, whose binder the geopolymer profile describes as an alkali-activated aluminosilicate, declared without Portland cement in the products it names.[5][6] They behave very differently in structure, moisture and carbon accounting, and this guide does not blur them. Stabilised rammed earth and cement-stabilised blocks add Portland cement to soil.[3][4] Hempcrete, which is bound with lime, is in our bio-based guide.
Fired clay is outside this guide's unfired earth materials. Our article Terracotta Facade Cladding: Standards, Declared Data and EPDs describes terracotta facade cladding, as the makers' documents present it, as an extruded fired-clay panel hung on an aluminium substructure.[7]
Earth and mineral materials at a glance
The tables repeat what each profile states, with its units, standards and test conditions; each row links to the profile and its primary sources. Nothing is converted or averaged, and the columns are not like-for-like, so a number in one row is not a verdict on the product.
(a) Earth and lime materials
| Material (profile) | What it is and forms, as stated | Thermal conductivity (λ), as stated | Moisture, as stated | Reaction to fire, as stated | Strength, as stated | Src |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Clay plaster | Factory-made mortar of building clay, sand and sometimes plant fibre that hardens by drying and can be re-wetted. Plaster mortars from 2–3 mm top coats to layers up to 30 mm; clay boards; clay paints and designer plasters. | 0.91 W/(m·K) (Claytec topcoat fine 06) to 1.1 W/(m·K) (mineral plaster 20); Claytec's lightweight insulating plaster declares 0.19. Ecoclay's EPD lists 0.24 W/(m·K) for its fibre base coat. | Claytec declares μ 5/10 and vapour sorption class WS III (at least 60 g/m² in 12 h, RH 50→80 %). Measured MBV (Nordtest, 8 h at 75 % / 16 h at 33 % RH, 23 °C, 25 mm samples): 1.56–1.89 g/(m²·%RH) for two clay plasters, "good" on that scale. No product-specific MBV found. Not for wet areas. | Mineral grades class A1 (DIN 4102-1); grades with more than 1 % plant fibre class B2 in the same declaration. Ecoclay's EPD lists A2-s1,d0 for its fibre base coat, A1 for the others. | Claytec's S II products declare compressive strength 2.0–3.0 N/mm² and adhesion 0.10–0.20 N/mm². | [1] |
| Lime plaster | Mortar with a lime binder: air lime (hardens mainly by carbonation) or natural hydraulic lime (NHL, which can also set in damp conditions). Lime putty and putty-based plasters; NHL binder in 25 kg bags; dry-mix plasters and renders; finishing coats of 1.5–5 mm. | Tabulated 0.40 W/mK (Volteco Calibro NHL) and 0.83 W/mK (Womersleys Bonding Coat NHL3.5); 0.61 W/(m·K) at P = 50 % (Secil Reabilita Cal RB). | µ ≤ 15 (Volteco, Secil); µ 15/35 tabulated (Womersleys); sd below 0.03 m at 2 mm (Kreidezeit finishing coat); Womersleys declares water absorption W0. No moisture buffer value for a lime plaster. | Class A1 declared by Volteco, Womersleys and Secil. | CS II declared where stated (Volteco; Secil, EN 1015-11); Saint-Astier EcoMortar Finish: 1.2 MPa at 28 days. EN 998-1 hardened-mortar categories, from a guide (not the standard itself): CS I 0.4–2.5, CS II 1.5–5.0, CS III 3.5–7.5, CS IV above 6 N/mm² at 28 days. | [2] |
| Rammed earth | Moist soil compacted in layers in formwork; called stabilised when a binder, usually Portland cement, is added. Monolithic walls in situ; prefabricated panels, typically 25 or 30 cm thick, up to 7.00 m long and 3.0 m high (Lücking); two-leaf walls with an insulation core. | Reported 0.46–1.6 W/mK across unstabilised samples in the review's Table 11; 0.523–1.209 W/mK for 12 compacted clay soils. No manufacturer λ opened. | µ of 9 and 13.3 measured on two batches of a ready-mixed rammed earth (DBU report); the earth-building rules cited there give guide values of 5 to 10. | GreenSpec says rammed earth can be classed as non-combustible; a trade-association presentation states earth is generally A1 under DIN 4102-4. No test report opened. | Compressive strengths in a 2026 review of 52 publications: 1 to 2.75 MPa (unstabilised) and 1.2 to 9.40 MPa (stabilised). Code minimums: New Mexico 300 psi for soil samples, 200 psi after seven days for stabilised soil. | [3] |
| Compressed earth blocks | Masonry units made by compressing moist soil in a mould and demoulding at once; with cement or lime added, the Auroville Earth Institute prefers the name CSEB. Full or perforated blocks; the draft Rwanda standard gives 29.50 × 14.00 × 9.00–9.50 cm as the most common full format. | 0.81–0.93 W/m°C (Auroville Earth Institute page, not split by class); 1.01 W/(m·K) measured on an 8 % cement block of about 1,781 kg/m³. | Total water absorption 8–15 % by weight depending on class (Auroville Earth Institute); the draft Rwanda standard limits absorption to 15, 10 or 5 % for blocks facing vertical water penetration. Wet compressive strength of the 8 % cement mix was half its dry strength. | The Auroville Earth Institute page rates fire resistance "Good" and adds that no scientific fire tests had been conducted to its knowledge. No test report opened for a compressed block. | Draft Rwanda standard (DRS 514-1:2022): ordinary-block classes by dry strength of 2, 4 or 6 N/mm². Auroville Earth Institute: 5–7, 4–5 and 3–4 MPa dry at 28 days for classes A, B and C. Lab figure: 6.2 MPa dry for one 8 % cement mix. | [4] |
Clay plaster's fire classes are given under DIN 4102-1 and the rammed earth statement under DIN 4102-4, so the cells are not one scale. Strength is a different quantity in each row (a plaster's compressive strength, a code's soil-sample minimum, a block class), and the thermal values mix declared, tabulated, measured and reviewed values.
(b) Concrete and binders
The two concrete profiles carry their own product comparison tables, which we do not repeat here: see low carbon concrete and geopolymer concrete. This table shows what each profile compares and on what basis.
| Material (profile) | What the profile compares | Declared unit | Programme and standard, as printed | How it is specified or accepted | Comparability, as the profile states it | Src |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Low carbon concrete | Eight declarations from seven manufacturers: four ready-mixed concrete EPDs (class C30/37 or B30) and cement EPDs, with GWP-total, programme, PCR, strength class, declared unit and modules kept in separate columns. | Concrete: 1 m³. Cement: 1 tonne. | International EPD System (PCR 2019:14 with c-PCR-003, EN 16757) and EPD Norge (NPCR 020:2021 Part B with EN 15804+A2) among them; EN 15804 in the European documents, ISO 21930 in the US one. | Performance specification: a GWP limit in kg CO₂e per m³ for each strength class (modules A1 to A3 in NB37), proved with a product-specific EPD. | Programmes, PCR versions and manufacturers differ, and gross and net bases differ: not directly comparable. | [5] |
| Geopolymer concrete | Three declarations: one Type II footprint declaration for Wagners' alkali-activated concrete (ISO 14067:2018, stated validity ended December 2020) and two C-Crete EPDs for clinker-free cements (NRMCA programme, ISO 21930:2017), which neither EPD describes as alkali-activated or geopolymer. | Wagners: 1 t dry binder and 1 m³ of N32 ready-mix. C-Crete: 1 t cement. | Standards differ: a carbon-footprint standard against an EPD standard with a cement PCR. | No European standard route read. PAS 8820 withdrawn 26 November 2024; SA TS 199:2023 listed as current; ASTM C1157 sets performance requirements (catalogue entries only). | Declared units, standards, boundaries and accounting differ: not directly comparable. The profile says the documents do not allow a ranking. | [6] |
Table (b) holds no GWP values on purpose: they are listed with their declared units in the carbon section below. Thermal conductivity and reaction to fire are not in the table because the low carbon concrete profile opened no source for either, and the geopolymer profile opened no thermal source and states no fire classification.
How to choose between earth and mineral materials
This section sets out the conditions and trade-offs each profile states for an application, then the constraints that cut across them. It ranks nothing. Interpretation is ours and is marked.
By application
Interior finishes. DIN 18947 covers factory-made earth plasters for walls and ceilings indoors and in weather-protected outdoor areas; the clay plaster profile calls clay plaster a credible interior finish when specified product by product, with buffering that is real but finish-dependent and needing dry conditions.[1] The lime plaster profile describes three-coat interior plaster, external render and heritage repair, where HES says repairs should match the original materials and method and that insulated lime plaster, usually 50–80 mm thick, is not normally appropriate in buildings with historic or decorative finishes such as cornices or mouldings.[2] On earth blocks, the draft Rwanda code of practice advises renders no thicker than 2 cm.[4]
Walls and masonry. The rammed earth profile shows load-bearing walls (the Detmold museum design: 60 cm walls up to eight metres high), insulated external assemblies (the Nk'Mip wall: two 250 mm earth leaves around 100 mm of polyisocyanurate) and prefabricated panels (Lücking, manufacturer statements: 25 or 30 cm thick, on a concrete plinth of at least 15 cm).[3] The compressed earth block profile gives the draft Rwanda standard's scope: simple structures in common masonry, such as walls, partitions, piers, small lintels, arches, vaults and domes. It names no project, because it found no project source it could read in full.[4]
Structure. The concrete profiles are clearest for mainstream structural concrete. The NB37 draft (June 2025) says its class 10R can usually be reached with ordinary fly-ash and slag cements and small recipe measures, 20R often needs special recipe measures, and 60R is roughly the most that generally available binders allow when capture-credited cements are left out.[5] For geopolymer, the profile says to confirm acceptance for the actual element with the authority and the structural engineer.[6]
Floors, slabs and foundations. For floors and pavements the profiles mostly give process conditions: fly ash can lengthen setting time, which affects power floating and steel trowelling, and Wagners writes that thin geopolymer slabs on ground are somewhat harder to place than conventional concrete.[5][6] The geopolymer profile also reports the Wellcamp Airport heavy-duty pavements from two supplier-written papers, and a 2014 brochure's statement of a VicRoads approval for general concrete paving and non-structural uses.[6] Neither concrete profile discusses foundations as such; for thick sections NB37 says more than 30 % fly ash, or often more than 50 % slag of the binder, gives low-heat concrete, and the geopolymer profile cites ACM's calorimetry (about half the heat of reaction of a Portland cement paste) but found no full-scale mass-concrete trial.[5][6] No earth profile gives foundation guidance.[3][4]
By constraint
- Moisture. Claytec says to protect clay plaster from standing or running water and permanent dampness, and the lime profile opened no datasheet rating a lime plaster for showers or wet rooms.[1][2] The draft Rwanda standard says blocks exposed to lateral spray or vertical water penetration need a stabiliser unless protection against water is guaranteed.[4] For concrete, durability is set by the exposure class and the maximum water/binder ratio for it.[5]
- Frost and cold weather. The profiles give no frost data for clay plaster, rammed earth or compressed earth blocks. For lime, Saint-Astier gives a working temperature of 8 °C to 30 °C and asks for frost protection of wet mortar for at least 10 days; U.S. Heritage Group asks for 28 days.[2] For concrete, NB37 says the Norwegian annex to EN 206 gives no rules for some binder combinations in frost classes MF40 and MF45, and NB37 says heating or accelerators used to offset slow early strength belong in the carbon account.[5] A geopolymer supplier reports early cracking on cold nights that called for specific curing measures.[6]
- Fire. See the cross-cutting section below.[1][2][3][4][6]
- Seismic and structural codes. None of the six profiles states seismic design provisions; the only mention is in the block profile, which notes that the draft Rwanda standard does not apply in areas subject to earthquakes, floods or cyclones to an extent that requires appropriate rules.[4] Structural limits come from country codes and standards that differ (see below).[3][4][5][6]
- Availability. The block profile names local soil as the origin, and the Auroville Earth Institute excludes topsoil and organic soils; for rammed earth, the Detmold museum's earth came mainly from a construction pit in Blomberg, and Sirewall's website describes compressed local soils.[4][3] For geopolymer, the one declaration that lists origins (Wagners, 2020) has slag shipped from Japan and activator chemicals from China, and UK fly ash supply has shifted to stockpiles and imports.[6]
- Carbon declarations. The profiles opened a product-level declaration for clay plaster, lime plaster and low carbon concrete, and, in the geopolymer profile, an expired Type II footprint declaration for Wagners' binder and concrete plus two C-Crete cement EPDs; none was found for rammed earth or compressed earth blocks.[1][2][3][4][5][6]
- Curing and drying. Time frames differ widely: Claytec's worksheet gives 24–48 hours for 2–3 mm clay plaster coats and about a week for 1 cm; lime guidance runs from days per coat (Tŷ-Mawr: one to two weeks for a first coat, a few days for the finish coat) to more than a year for historic work (US National Park Service); cement-stabilised blocks are cured four weeks (Auroville Earth Institute); Lücking quotes two to three weeks of drying before delivering prefabricated rammed earth panels.[1][2][4][3] Our reading: for earth and lime the schedule is a design input.
What cuts across the six profiles
Moisture and durability
Clay plaster hardens by evaporation with no chemical set, so cured plaster softens when wetted: easy to repair, but it needs protection from water.[1] Stated vapour resistance is listed with its basis, because the bases differ: μ 5/10 declared by Claytec for plasters, µ ≤ 15 declared for two lime plasters and µ 15/35 tabulated for a third, and µ of 9 and 13.3 measured on two batches of a ready-mixed rammed earth against guide values of 5 to 10.[1][2][3] Of the six profiles, only clay plaster has a measured moisture buffer value (1.56–1.89 g/(m²·%RH) for two clay plasters); the lime profile has none.[1][2] For geopolymer, an RMIT test reported by Aldred gave a 56-day accelerated carbonation depth of 12.6 mm for an EFC mix against 10.0 and 13.2 mm for two Portland-based references, and the independent RILEM authors call long-term durability of non-slag-based types an open issue.[6]
Fire
In the profiles we have published (our count), 2 of 6 give a class from product declarations: clay plaster (A1 for mineral grades and B2 above 1 % plant fibre in Claytec's declaration) and lime plaster (A1, declared by Volteco, Womersleys and Secil).[1][2] For rammed earth the profile reports GreenSpec's statements (non-combustible; at least 90 minutes of fire resistance for a 300 mm wall) and a trade-association statement of A1 under DIN 4102-4, and opened no test report.[3] For blocks, the Auroville Earth Institute rates fire resistance "Good" and notes that no scientific fire tests had been conducted to its knowledge; a sheet for form-struck (not compressed) earth blocks states class A1, which the profile does not carry over to pressed blocks.[4] The geopolymer profile reports summaries of fire tests by a supplier (ISO 834, in ACM's brochure) and in Aldred's paper (AS 1530.4), without the test reports.[6] A class and a test duration are different measures. Flagged: A1 for earth (a rammed earth statement, a form-struck block sheet) sits next to B2 for fibre-bearing clay plaster and "Good" without tests; the products and conditions differ.
Structural acceptance and codes
For earth walls the profiles cite country codes: NZS 4297:1998 (construction may not exceed 6.5 m in height), New Mexico's 14.7.4 NMAC (two stories, 18 inches minimum for exterior walls, 300 psi minimum for soil samples) and the German Lehmbau Regeln; GreenSpec states there are no UK codes of practice for rammed earth.[3] Flagged: the stabiliser thresholds differ in basis: at least 6 % by weight (New Mexico) against 6–10 % by volume (Australian specification) for rammed earth, and for blocks a 3 % minimum with a 5 % average (Auroville Earth Institute), 5–10 % by weight named in an abstract as sufficient for load-bearing use (Cabrera and co-authors, 2020) and a 15 % by weight cement limit on the scope of NZS 4298.[3][4] Check the code that governs your project.
For blocks, the profile lists a draft Rwanda standard, DIN 18945:2024-03, UNE 41410:2008 (listed as no longer valid) and IS 1725:2013 (withdrawn, superseded by IS 1725:2023).[4] For concrete, EN 206:2013+A2:2021 is listed as withdrawn from 4 March 2026 and revised by EN 206-1:2026 and EN 206-2:2026, prEN 197-1 is a draft, and the NB37 limits we cite come from its June 2025 consultation draft. A final edition of October 2025 exists and we have not read it, and a 2026 consultation draft renames the classes (LK10 to LK80), so check the current edition before using these limits.[5] For geopolymer, PAS 8820 is withdrawn, SA TS 199:2023 is listed as current, and the VicRoads approval in a 2014 brochure was for general paving and non-structural uses.[6] Our reading: quote the edition in the specification.
Declared carbon
Figures are shown as each profile states them, with the declared unit, never netted. Declared units differ: not comparable. They are grouped by profile only to show what each states.
- Clay plaster (GWP-total, A1–A3, per kg of mortar): Claytec earth-moist mineral plaster 0.0127 kg CO₂e; dry-dosed grades 0.047–0.063; earth-moist grades with plant fibre −0.0016 to −0.0035 (a straw and miscanthus credit that, per the profile, depends on a straw recycling scenario); Ecoclay, average of three mortars, 0.0547 (not directly comparable, per the profile).[1]
- Lime plaster (GWP-total per kg, A1–A3): 0.592 kg CO₂e (Volteco Calibro NHL, packaging excluded) and 0.0864 (Adesital Adesan NHL Intonaco, packaging included); different compositions and declared units. The profile describes the lime cycle (calcination releases CO₂, carbonation later takes it up) and does not net the two.[2]
- Rammed earth: no EPD for a wall. Meek and co-authors (2021, abstract read) report modelled cradle-to-gate emissions per vertical square metre 73 % lower than cavity brick for mixes with recycled crushed brick and concrete plus slag, fly ash or silica fume, and 15 % lower than brick veneer for rammed earth with cement.[3]
- Compressed earth blocks: no EPD found. The Auroville Earth Institute page gives 51.5 kg CO₂/m³ for CSEB against 642.9 kg CO₂/m³ for country fired brick (its own comparison; the other copy of the page gives 54.5 for CSEB).[4]
- Low carbon concrete (1 m³, A1–A3 GWP-total): 189, 192 (the profile's sum of A1, A2 and A3, which the Ribe Betong EPD prints separately), 207 and 295 kg CO₂e across four ready-mixed concrete EPDs of class C30/37 or B30 from different programmes, PCR versions and manufacturers; cement EPDs: 243 to 667 kg CO₂e per tonne (net where both are given; the lowest is a prospective carbon-capture declaration). NB37 says Scandinavian cement EPDs moved from gross to net reporting in 2025, lowering reported A1 to A3 cement GWP by 10 to 25 %.[5]
- Geopolymer concrete: 117.59 kg CO₂e per tonne of Wagners' dry binder and 122.59 or 119.62 kg CO₂e per m³ of its N32 ready-mix (one Type II declaration whose stated validity ended in December 2020); 43.1 kg CO₂e per tonne for a C-Crete fly ash and slag cement (EPD 20353), which the EPD does not call alkali-activated or geopolymer. Different standards, boundaries and accounting.[6]
Documentation
Clay plaster: the datasheet and test report, an EPD or verified declaration, and an emissions certificate (Claytec's eco-INSTITUT certificate, valid to 01/2027).[1] Lime plaster: the declaration of performance to EN 998-1, the datasheet and an EPD.[2] Rammed earth and blocks: the governing code or standard and the project specification, since the profiles found no EPD, no certified product and no independent fire or emissions report.[3][4] Concrete: a GWP limit per strength class with named life-cycle modules and a gross or net basis, proved with a product-specific EPD, and the standard edition quoted in the specification.[5] Geopolymer: a current declaration with its standard, declared unit and boundary, and evidence for the mix you specify.[6] By our count, a product emissions test or label was opened in 1 of 6 profiles; the other five say they did not open one. In four of six profiles (lime plaster, rammed earth, compressed earth blocks, geopolymer concrete) the bottom line calls the material a family of products, mixes or binders, not one material. Registry statuses are as each profile reports them: confirm them before specifying.
The 6 profiles
- Clay plaster: A factory-made mortar of building clay, sand and sometimes plant fibre that hardens by drying; for interior walls, not wet areas.[1]
- Lime plaster: A mortar with an air lime or natural hydraulic lime binder, classed under EN 998-1 when factory-made, with curing regimes that differ by product.[2]
- Rammed earth: Moist soil compacted in layers between formwork, stabilised or not; codes and project specifications hold the strength and cement requirements.[3]
- Compressed earth blocks: Masonry units made by compressing moist soil in a mould, with or without cement or lime; class thresholds come from standards and drafts.[4]
- Low carbon concrete: Structural concrete made to limit greenhouse-gas emissions, specified by a GWP limit per strength class and proved with a product-specific EPD.[5]
- Geopolymer concrete: Concrete with an alkali-activated aluminosilicate binder instead of Portland cement; standards are national or performance-based.[6]
Related: bio-based. Our bio-based guide covers the plant and animal materials, including hempcrete and straw bale, and is not repeated here.
Further reading. Our article Terracotta Facade Cladding: Standards, Declared Data and EPDs reads the approvals of three makers of fired-clay facade panels and the EPDs of two of them.[7]
Frequently asked questions about earth and mineral building materials
What counts as earth and mineral building materials in this guide?
In this guide it means the six materials we have profiled for this family: clay plaster, lime plaster, rammed earth, compressed earth blocks, low carbon concrete and geopolymer concrete. That is our editorial grouping of earth, lime and cement-based mineral materials, not a standard or a certification. We keep earth and lime apart from cement and binder technology because they behave very differently in structure, moisture and carbon accounting.
Can I compare the carbon figures of earth, lime and concrete products directly?
No. Declared units differ. The clay plaster and lime plaster profiles give GWP per kg of mortar (0.0127 kg CO₂e for one Claytec grade; 0.592 and 0.0864 for two lime EPDs with different compositions and declared units), the low carbon concrete profile gives 189 to 295 kg CO₂e per m³ across four EPDs from different programmes and PCR versions, and the profiles found no EPD for rammed earth or compressed earth blocks. We list figures with their own units and do not net or rank them.
Do these materials have fire classes?
Where the profiles opened a product declaration, yes: Claytec declares A1 for mineral clay plaster grades and B2 above 1 % plant fibre, and Volteco, Womersleys and Secil declare A1 for lime plasters. For rammed earth, GreenSpec says it can be classed as non-combustible, and the profile opened no test report. The block profile found no fire test report, and the concrete profiles give no reaction-to-fire class. Take the class from the product document.
Which of these materials need protection from water?
The profiles say so most directly for clay plaster: Claytec says to protect it from standing or running water and permanent dampness. The lime profile opened no datasheet that rates a lime plaster for wet rooms. The 8 % cement block mix had a wet compressive strength half its dry strength. Concrete durability is set by the exposure class and the maximum water/binder ratio for it.
Which documents should I ask for before specifying an earth or mineral material?
Taken together, the profiles' bottom lines ask for (our summary): the datasheet and declaration of performance, a current EPD checked on its registry, an emissions certificate where indoor air matters, the code or project specification that sets strength and stabiliser limits for earth walls and blocks, the edition of the concrete standard you cite, and, for geopolymer, a declaration stating its standard, declared unit and boundary, with acceptance confirmed by the authority and structural engineer.
About these data
Every figure on this page comes from the linked profiles, each of which lists the primary sources behind its numbers (datasheets, declarations of performance, EPDs, codes, standards catalogue entries and peer-reviewed papers), or from the linked article. This guide adds no measurements and no sources of its own. Counts such as "4 of 6" are ours, across our own profiles, and statements marked as our reading are interpretation. Where a profile read only a catalogue entry, an abstract or a supplier summary, this page says so too. Registry statuses, standard editions and validity dates are as each profile reports them on its own checking date: confirm them before specifying.
Sources
- Soul Materials, "Clay Plaster for Interior Walls: Properties, Standards and Moisture Buffering", material profile by Pilar Flores, /materials/clay-plaster. The profile lists its own primary sources; used here for clay plaster properties, DIN 18947 and sorption classes, moisture buffer values, fire classes, EPD figures, emissions certificates and limits.
- Soul Materials, "Lime Plaster: Types, Standards, Vapour Permeability and Carbon Data", material profile by Pilar Flores, /materials/lime-plaster. The profile lists its own primary sources; used here for EN 998-1 and EN 459-1 notes, declared performance, curing guidance, EPD figures and uses.
- Soul Materials, "Rammed Earth: Standards, Strength, Thermal Data and Carbon", material profile by Pilar Flores, /materials/rammed-earth. The profile lists its own primary sources; used here for codes, strength, thermal, moisture and fire statements, carbon studies, panels and the two documented projects.
- Soul Materials, "Compressed Earth Blocks: Standards, Strength, Thermal Data and Carbon", material profile by Pilar Flores, /materials/compressed-earth-blocks. The profile lists its own primary sources; used here for stabiliser ranges, standards and drafts, strength, absorption, fire and carbon studies.
- Soul Materials, "Low Carbon Concrete: Cements, EPDs and How to Specify It", material profile by Pilar Flores, /materials/low-carbon-concrete. The profile lists its own primary sources; used here for how limits are written, EPD programmes and units, exposure-class and early-strength limits, the "when to specify" conditions and carbon figures.
- Soul Materials, "Geopolymer Concrete: Alkali-Activated Binders, Standards and Use", material profile by Pilar Flores, /materials/geopolymer. The profile lists its own primary sources; used here for the standards position, handling, durability evidence, the "when to specify" conditions, fire test summaries and carbon declarations.
- Soul Materials, "Terracotta Facade Cladding: Standards, Declared Data and EPDs", article by Pilar Flores, /post-terracotta-facades. Linked as related reading; only its description of the product (an extruded fired-clay panel on an aluminium substructure) and of what it reads (approvals of three makers, EPDs of two) are used, and no figure on this page is taken from it.